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WILLIAMS' CASE. 231
try or situation in which such lives happen to be placed, as well as
the political causes, such as the arbitrary nature of the govern-
ment, or the grade of society under which they may be cast. (x)
It has been observed, from a very remote period, that the high and
mountainous regions of Germany have always been much more
healthy than the low margins of its great rivers and sea coasts; (y)
and indeed over the whole world the degree of salubrity often
varies with a mile of difference in location. It is universally
admitted, that large cities are less favourable to the duration of
human life than country situations; insomuch so, that great cities
have been justly termed ' the sepulchres of the dead and the hos-
pitals of the living.' The difference between the duration of hu-
man life in all cities of such magnitude as London, Paris, Vienna,
Berlin, and the country, have always, and at all times, been very
great. But this difference lessens with the smaller towns; so that,
as between mere villages and the country, it is nothing at all. (z)
The expectation of life varies not only with country and place,
but also according to the grade and condition of individuals in
society; and such variations are most remarkable in those coun-
tries in which the grades and conditions are most strongly distin-
guished. In England as well as in all the other countries of the
old world, the expectation of life is greatest in favour of those of
the middle classes, and least favourable to those of the aristocratic
orders, whose lives are curtailed by their intemperance and de-
baucheries; (a) and to those of the mere operatives whose lives
are shortened by the oppressions and privations under which they
suffer. (6) Consequently, a table formed for a whole country col-
lectively, cannot be altogether correct for every particular situa-
tion, or for each class of society of the same country.
It often happens however, that in the inquiries which have been
made concerning the duration of human life much has been said as
to the insalubrity of particular situations; as to the causes, preva-
lence, and cure of diseases; and also as to the political causes
which materially affect the continuance of human life; but with
all, or any of those causes, or with the prevention, or removal of
any of them, a court of justice, when called upon merely to deter-
(x) 2 Southern Re?. 186.—(y) I Malth. Popu. 380; 2 Price Obser. 242.—(x) 1
Price Obser. 127; 2 Price Obser. 30, S3, 45, 49, 65, 83, 127, 218, 226; 1 Malth.
Popu. 392; 2 Malth. Popu. 487,—(a) 9 Westm. Rev. 888.—(5) 9 Westm. Rev.
388; 14 Westm. Rev. 390, note; 1 Price Obser. 150; 2 Price Obser. 144; 3 Lond,
and Westm, Rev. art 8; 2 Sparks' Franklin's Works, 324.
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